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Mark preps for his first video visit with Sincer-A. Melissa risks all to meet high school crush Louie. Emily gets a suspicious call asking for money. Chelsea fears Mikey is lying. Justine gets ready for her prison wedding, but is his family on board?

S4, E4 Where There’s Smoke Melissa suspects Louie is cheating and faces the mystery woman. Jessica learns disturbing news about Dustin. Emily gives Dauri an ultimatum. Chelsea visits a lawyer to uncover the truth about Mikey. S4, E7 Ride or Die? Michael loses it on Justine when she reveals a secret. Melissa visits Louie and is blindsided by the reality of dating an inmate. Jessica breaks down in tears when her daughter makes a difficult choice. Jessica gets devastating news about Dustin.

Mark has a big announcement. Tai seeks spiritual guidance. Chelsea visits Mikey and his secret is revealed. Mama June: From Not to Hot. S4, E1 Family Crisis June goes missing after her arrest. A shocking murder triggers a family manhunt to save her life. S4, E2 Where is Mama June? Manhunt for June takes an unexpected turn. Pumpkin and Jennifer lock horns. Alana’s tough audition.

Alana’s first day of school spirals out of control. Alana hits a breaking point. Alana longs for home. Chaos breaks out over custody battle. S5, E1 From Crisis to Recovery A newly sober Mama June goes on a dramatic journey to reunite with her family who is still picking up the pieces of her addiction. S5, E6 The Visit The family’s hope for a happy future is in jeopardy when Alana struggles to forgive Geno for the past.

S5, E8 Mama’s Lying June gets a major wake-up call when she faces jail time, putting her relationship with the girls back in jeopardy. As the family plans for her birthday, will a party crasher ruin the fun? Could this derail all of their progress? S5, E11 Mama’s Scared Straight! S5, E13 Behind Closed Doors Newly single Mama June is back on the hunt for a new man, but the family struggles to stand by her side when June finally goes too far.

Pumpkin breaks the cycle as matriarch and drops a big surprise that no one sees coming. Pumpkin comes up with a way to get Jessica off her couch for good. But June, who has been traveling, crashes the party, and lies to cover up her new man. They are so upset, Pumpkin reaches out to Dr. Ish for help.

Meanwhile, June is considering a move back to Georgia and wants to do it with Justin. S5, E19 Boundaries Dr. Ish helps the family deal with their June issues. Meanwhile, June and Justin secretly move back to Georgia to be closer to the girls.

Alana goes on a date with Dralin. Pumpkin and Josh are furious when they find out June is now living close by. Pumpkin is livid and determined to protect Alana by getting full custody.

June takes Pumpkin and Jessica on an apology trip to Vegas, where they plan to present her with custody papers. S5, E21 What Happens in Vegas June pulls out all the stops for Pumpkin and Jessica in Las Vegas, taking them to a special plus size salon. Pumpkin blurts out a secret and stresses about asking June to sign papers giving her custody of Alana.

Dralin and Alana get closer. Pumpkin and Josh get a big shock. June and Justin go to Los Angeles to get dental and weight loss surgeries. Can Dr. Ish and Judge Toler repair these relationships before it’s too late? Ish asks two people to leave boot camp. S15, E91 Secrets Revealed Dr. S15, E92 The G. The greatest Marriage Boot Camp moments of all time, featuring hip hop all-stars from 15 seasons. S16, E1 Lovers on Lockdown Four new couples identify the problems in their relationships. One couple wants to call it quits.

S16, E2 Rap Battle The couples reveal resentments. Tresure struggles with drinking. A couple swap sparks jealousy; N. Ish drops a truth bomb. S16, E5 Speak of the Devil Communication drill sparks drama when one boot camper threatens to leave; N.

S16, E7 Diss-Respect The couples portray one another during their arguments. A drill brings an unwelcome surprise. S16, E8 Breaking the Cycle Tears are shed when the boot-campers learn how their childhood shaped them into who they are today.

Ish and Judge Toler will try to mend these broken relationships. Will they lean into the process or will they let it break them? The couples rap about what they resent about one another. Things get even spicier, when they are forced to eat their pain. But when the boot campers refused to show up, Judge Toler is ready to drop down the law. Ish has the Boot Campers swap romantic partners for the day to perform a sexy dance. S17, E4 All Shook Up The couples must learn to fight fair, but when Lyrica and A1 try to switch up the game, everybody pays a shocking price.

Emmet gets heated when Boo crosses the line with his family. K Michelle puts her foot down on having a new baby. S17, E5 Fail to Communicate Couples battle communication. Mariahlynn shares a painful past. Old beef between Lyrica and K. Michelle erupts once again. Rich admits his true feelings about Mariah. Michelle rethink her issues with Lyrica. Michelle and Lyrica, as the couples learn how words can damage a relationship. Ish and the Judge have some big surprises in store that will teach everyone the true meaning of respect.

S17, E9 Liar, Liar? Tensions mount as the couples take a lie detector test. Things get real when Toler reveals that half of the group was deceptive.

A night out brings temptation, but Mariahlynn reaches a breaking point. The Mysterious Death of Eazy-E. Notorious Queens. The Real Blac Chyna. But will a public place prevent fireworks? S1, E4 Back to Basics After reconciling with her mother, Chyna gets back to business and focuses on her musical career. Chyna finally opens up but is Toni receptive. Starting with ex best friend Treasure. S1, E12 Get Out!

Blac Chyna kicks Jamaal out her guest house but the drama continues when he returns for his stuff. S1, E13 From Pillar to Post While trying to focus on her daily routine Chyna receives a surprise visit from someone unexpected. Super Sized Salon. Babydoll Beauty is put to the test when challenges threaten the mission of the salon. When life of the party, salon receptionist Astra shows up, she changes the vibe from heated to glitter and good times.

Trouble between the Twins comes to a head over collard greens, and everyone is left wondering if Babydoll can succeed amidst all the drama! Sparks fly when A Love and take things outside, and Jamie is thrown under the bus trying to fix it.

S1, E5 He’s A Dog When Jamie discovers dirty text messages on Demarco’s phone, a dose of tough love from the ladies pushes Jamie to make a big decision. As pressure to break off their relationship mounts, a psychic gives Jamie a reading that could change everything. Sparks fly between BB and the dolls over a “revenge situation”. Just as things are looking up, shocking news disrupts the team, leading to a decision that may change the future of Babydoll forever.

Tamar Braxton: Get Ya Life! David questions the Dream Work. Tamar cancels Production… again! Goli and David square off. S1, E6 Final Word As the documentary comes to a close, Tamar is forced to address unfinished personal business. The TS Madison Experience. Could this derail her expansion? But as she ascends to higher heights, will she learn to play nice?

And, she has the perfect first guest in mind: her mama! Will she find closure in facing her father? Can she and her team make it happen? Waka fears for her safety. But, Tammy and Charlie’s trip to Baltimore ends in a dramatic breakdown.

Tammy and Charlie go to therapy and have a major breakthrough. Waka and Tammy reignite their marriage, and their sex life. S3, E1 Separated or Nah?

S3, E2 Separation is Getting a New Perspective Post-breakup, Waka searches for a new home and immerses himself in his business ventures. Tammy worries about Charlie’s personal safety and talks about the separation with Quam. Charlie reconnects with Deb and shares her anxieties with a therapist. Charlie tries to become her own person. Tammy gets ready for a girls’ night out.

Tammy has to face entrepreneur challenges and an upset Deb. Waka hires a vegan chef to persuade the family to start eating healthier. S3, E6 Separation is Filling in the Emptiness Despite his misgivings about therapy, Waka follows through with a session on his path toward self-discovery and closure.

S3, E7 Separation is Finding a New Normal While Tammy focuses on her store opening, Waka keeps his distance and mind on his own work as Charlie tries to follow in her parents entrepreneurial footsteps. D Creative Practices S Very original arrangements, effective improvisation. E Receptive Contexts M Performances in nightclubs and workshops in schools.

Figure 8: PACT-Tokyo Brass Style Figure 8: PACT-Tokyo Brass Style Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble The Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble previously known as Wa-On Ensemble is another example Moscow well Pan-Asian Ensemble worth consideration.

In , I performed and recorded a few times on trumpet and voice The Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble with this unique free improvisation previously ensemble known as Wa-On at the Tchaikovsky Ensemble Conservatory while I is another was living example well worth consideration. In , I performed and recorded a few times on in Moscow and employed as a lecturer for Lomonosov Moscow State University. The Pan-Asian trumpet and voice with this unique free improvisation ensemble at the Tchaikovsky Ensemble is led by expert Russian musicians trained in composition, ethnomusicology, and mu- Conservatory while I was living in Moscow and employed as a lecturer for Lomonosov sic therapy, State Moscow and who are especially University.

Theinspired by Asian Pan-Asian music,is Ensemble particularly Japanese led by expert traditional Russian mu- musicians sic. shakuhachi On the and Dmitry JazzLoft Kalinin shaku- website, the Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble is described as follows: hachi, hichiriki, Chinese gong-chimes and voice. The Ensemble is augmented by Varvara Sidoro- va, Kakujo Nakagawa and Misako Mimuro all three on biwas and Pyotr Nikulin on dijeridu and Dmitry Schyolkin on percussion.

The leaders studied with great Japanese teachers. Russians try to create new music based directly on Japanese musical traditions and its aesthetic principles without distorting European composing techniques. Amazingly, they manage to create something truly original. aspx 36 David G. He has stud- ied shakuhachi kinko-ryu and koto ikuta-ryu extensively with various teachers in both Kyoto and Moscow. In he even attained certification as a koto teacher through the Sawai Tadao koto school.

He is a graduate of the composition department of the Tchaikovsky Conservatory, where he studied under professors K. Batashev and A. Another important member is Dr. Varvara Sidorova, who has performed with the ensemble since its inception. Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble performances entail no planning of any kind other than the set- ting out of instruments to be used. There is no notation, no set song forms, and no discussion regarding musical intentions. Rather, the musicians simply begin making sounds, gradually add- ing more instruments, and see where their collective spontaneous creation leads them, typically through a mysterious terrain of expressive gestures.

The band members are such extraordinarily open, focused and responsive improvisers that one often perceives seemingly ordered sequences in their music. The improvisations typically combine European and Asian traditional instru- ments, vocal sounds, electronic sounds, and the sounds of homemade instruments and found objects. The improvisations typically combine European and Asian traditional instruments, vocal sounds, electronic sounds, and the sounds of homemade instruments and found objects.

Free improvisation offers little room for idiomatic conventions, yet B Idiomatic Conventions Medium some tendencies cannot be entirely avoided. This feature seems especially strong. Very unusual sound in combination of European and Asian acoustic and electronic instruments as well as self-made instruments and D Creative Practices Strong found objects.

E Receptive Contexts Medium Performances in combination with visual artists, butoh dance, etc. Figure 9: PACT-Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble Figure 9: PACT-Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble Summary Overview of the Four Cases It should Summarybe clear from the Overview ofpreceding the Four discussion Cases that cultural translation can be either con- scious or unconscious, and deliberately highlighted or shunted in such music projects.

approach to The Yoshidaevident hybridity Brothers, on in the the other hand, seem to comfortably straddle both traditional folk and popular Helsinki Koto Ensemble and the Moscow Pan-Asian Ensemble appear to be conceptually similar, music fields. The approach to hybridity evident in the Helsinki Koto Ensemble and the Moscow although their actual sounds are quite dissimilar, with the Finns offering intelligible beauteous Pan-Asian Ensemble appear to be conceptually similar, although their actual sounds are and melodic music, while quite dissimilar, withthe theRussians produce Finns offering an atonal,beauteous intelligible mysterious, andchallenging, and atwhile melodic music, times the Russians even horrific produce improvised an atonal, collage mysterious, of sounds challenging, that would make an and idealatbackdrop times even forhorrific a terrifying improvised suspense movie.

collage of sounds that would make an ideal backdrop for a terrifying suspense movie. In addition, they can also that embrace experimentation via hybridity. It should also be noted, however, that there are some will come to beof indications perceived a minor revivalas merelyof Japanesea curious and music traditional temporary trend in the first or the decade beginnings of the 21st century.

of a new movement. I would suspect the latter is a more likely outcome, due to the effects of globalization and the tendency of institutions to eventually respond when new opportunities are convincingly 20 demonstrated. It should also be noted, however, that there are some indications of a minor revival of Japanese traditional music in the first decade of the 21st century.

It is my hope that the ideas offered here will prove to be stimulating to scholars in other areas of cultural translation and perhaps lead to work that ena- bles us to better understand the perennial mysteries of expressive communication and cultural difference. html 41 The Essential Rumi, new expanded edition, tr. Coleman Barks, New York: HarperOne, Walter Kaufmann, New York: Penguin, These Japanese authors-translators were pioneers in both inter-cultural studies and transmitting values and concepts of Japanese culture to the West.

These texts will be analysed to see how the context as well as the reader influence the re- ception of the text as discourse through the translation process both the translator the self- translator, a privileged translator Tanqueiro, We also present a diachronic study of some translations of the above mentioned books published in Spanish between to These Japanese authors-translators were pioneers in both inter-cultural studies and transmit- ting values and concepts of Japanese culture to the West.

These texts will be analysed to see how the context as well as the reader influence the re- ception of the text as discourse through the translation process of the translator and the self- translator, a privileged translator Tanqueiro, We also present a diachronic study of some translations of the abovementioned books published in Spanish between and In fact, translation has played an extremely important role in the reception and syncretism of foreign cultures in the history of Japan, in the reception of both continental Asian culture and thought in ancient times and Western culture and thought, beginning in the 16th century and in particular from the 19th century onwards.

In Japan the era of written history begins with the adoption of the Chinese script in the 5th Century. Japanese scholars began to use the phonetic element of Chinese characters to represent the sounds of Japanese, e.

Kojiki , in which abbreviated Chinese characters are used as phonograms. This led to a new era of communication with the foreign world and, as had happened with 42 M.

Honyaku to Nihon no kin- dai is a published dialogue taidan between the two auta popular genre in Japan. What kinds of texts were translated? Why did Japanese embrace translation as a means of learning about the world? And why was priority given to translating every available text? Haag, Theoretical framework. Evidence of the skopos can be found in the texts as well as in paratextual elements.

General context The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century were characterized by the military, nationalist propaganda which influenced the construction of the modern state in Japan. Theories about the essence of Japanese identity traits were developed within the Nihonjinron movement, and two of the most important books published in this tradition at the Meiji Era were written origi- nally in English by Japanese authors.

Both authors used English, not their mother tongue, as a vehicular language to write their books on Japanese culture. These books were soon popular in the West, and to a certain extent considered prestigious works. The author was a Japanese diplomat and scholar from a samurai family. He came to be Under Secretary of the League of Nations and married Mary Elkintorff, an American quaker. In the preface, he pointed out that his purpose skopos was to explain Japanese culture to the West through the tradition of Bushido, the ideal code of morals and conduct of the Samurai nurtured by Oriental wisdom and religion.

The source text ST used for this study is a reissue of the enlarged 10th edition published by G. Context Inazo Nitobe grew up in the Meiji Era , the period which saw the transformation of Japanese society. During this period, unlike many other Asian countries, Japan learned to emulate Western im- perialist strategies and become a European-style colonial power Diez del Corral, The Japanese policy of extending their influence in the Asian continent was successful due to the spectacular victories of the Japanese navy and army in the Sino-Japanese War and 44 M.

Professor, economist, mor- alist, diplomat, and author his completed works are compiled in 24 volumes and it is important to notice that a quarter of his works were written in English. Nitobe also worked as a University professor Howes, 7; Kojima, ; as a civil serv- ant in the colonial administration in Taiwan and the Asian Pacific Area and as a diplomat in the West.

The Soul of Japan is perhaps the most popular of his pub- lications. In the preface to the edition he describes its genesis in a conversation with Dr.

Many translations had been published, including translations into Chinese, Japanese, and Polish the latter censored by the Russian gov- ernment ; a Russian manuscript was ready for the press.

In Charles E. He also questioned its survival in a period of political and social revolution when Japan was being invaded by West- ern influences. Nitobe made his pretext explicit in his preface to the first edition. He was trying to explain Japanese culture to the West at a time when very little was known: All through the discourse I have tried to illustrate whatever points I have made with paral- lel examples from European history and literature, believing that these will aid in bringing the subject nearer to the comprehension of foreign readers.

He was particularly conscious of the difficulties of translating between distant cultures and languages, East and West and used both foreignising and domesticating strategies to get his message across. The use of the original term is also advisable for this reason, that a teaching so circumscribed and unique, engendering a cast of mind and character so peculiar, so local, must wear the badge of its singularity on its face; then, some words have a national timbre so expressive of race characteristics that the best of transla- tors can do them but scant justice, not to say positive injustice and grievance.

According to John H. See Beeby and Rodriguez, The yen bill had the image of Nitobe for 20 years On the reverse of these bills could be seen Mount Fuji, one of the chief sacred symbols kami of Japan. Fujiwara, He admired the efforts of Pre-Meiji and Meiji Japan, especially the efforts of the government to modernize Japan by sending students abroad and contract- ing professors from Europe and the USA.

He felt that was Japan a model to imitate. It is essential to become familiar with the socio-political context in order to understand the where, why and when of this translation. He was both initiator and translator of the book. Nitobe b: In his preface, the translator described the translation strategies he used to remain faithful to the source text and maintain what was exotic and unique in the Japanese culture. His one criticism was that, whereas Nitobe had compared the codes of the samurais and European chivalry in general, he had not mentioned the close similarities between the samurai and the Spanish caballero.

His affinity with Nitobe is remarkable and we have not found obvious cases of deliberate censor- ship or manipulation. There are some examples where his translation does not reflect the ST, but these are usually due to false friends between English and Spanish, e.

This publishing house specialises in small, unexpensive, but attractively designed books, and has several collections. The historical context of this translation is important in that neither the publishing house nor the translator would have been under any pressure to censor any aspect of the ST. References to Marx or the Masons would not have been suspect. Japan was not a military power to be emulated or feared.

He told the publisher that he had little to say on the subject, it was a literal translation and he had tried to stay as close to the ST as possible while respecting the orthographic and syntactic norms of the target language. Nitobe was generous with capital letters and exclamation marks when he wanted to be emphatic.

How- ever, Esteve Serra omitted most of them, respecting the orthographic norms of Spanish. Apart from this, he is practically invisible. There is no introduction from the translator.

Esteve Serra did not adapt these references to meet the expectations of Spanish readers at the end of the 20th Century. Nitobe Esteve Serra Esteve Serra was following a professional brief and his translation is accurate but lacks the emotional intensity of the ST and the other TTs.

He belonged to the first genera- tion of students at the Imperial University of Tokyo, founded in His academic background was strongly influenced by foreign professors, such as Ernest Fenollosa with whom he both cooperated on several translation projects and developed a strong friendship.

Okakura also had the opportunity to continue his studies in Europe and USA. In this book, the author defended the most representative aesthetic values of Japanese Culture and tradition, by comparing them with the most remarkable aesthetic values of Western Culture at the time.

You have gained expansion at the cost of restlessness. We have created harmony which is weak against aggression. Will you believe it? Okakura did not include any introductory texts in his source texts in English and paratexts and pretexts are very important to the interpretation of texts as discourse.

The source text used here is an edition published in Tokyo by Kodansha Publishing House in These paratexts provide us with valuable information about the ST and its author. In writing of chanoyu his concern was the broad current of Asian culture flow- ing Eastward from India, and its potential person to disseminate the culture of chanoyu in the World.

Both were times when Japan was influenced by Western cul- ture, ideas and institutions, times when the Japanese feared losing their rich cultural traditions. Okakura used both, domesticating and foreignizing strategies to get his message across. The Book of Tea by Okakura is an essay with seven chapters dealing with the definition sources and origins of Teaism; its reception and importance in Japan p.

Two essential parts of Japanese classical culture are combined: The Art of Life and the Art of Death. The text is beautifully written, and is very emotional, sometimes pas- sionate, with a lot of metaphors and intonation signs.

Reception of The Book of Tea The Book of Tea was first published in New York, by Fox Duffield and Co. Publishing House. This publication gave and extraordinary fame to Okakura in EEUU and Europe. The 19th ed. has re- cently been published; Charles E Tuttle Co. As to Spain, its massive reception has been quite recent some 15 years ago , and several translation into Spanish have been published since then.

However, is important to stress that, the first translation of this book in Spain, was the one by Marcial Pineda into catalan, published in Barcelona in the 20s. Caulfield, The fourth edition of the book appeared in In Pal- ma de Mallorca ; 54 M.

The Kenkyusha edition is remarkable because all the shortcomings of the ST by Okakura were revised and a lot of notes and comments added , a paratextual information which facilitates the reading and comprehension of the ST. Finally, it is worth mentioning, the translation by J. Javier Fuente del Pilar, published by Miraguano, It should be noticed that both Esteve Serra and J.

Okakura inspired many artists and writers both in Asia and the West. His influence on Ernest Fenollosa and Ezra Pound was remarkable. His book has contributed to awakening Western interest in Zen Buddhism since the beginning of 20th century. It also inspired Suzuki Daisetsu , the distinguished Japanese author and disseminator of Japanese Culture in the West, in particular his book Zen and Japanese Culture includes many references to Okakura.

According to Sakai 8 , the reason why the Book of Tea still grips the interest of readers all around the world, years after its publication lies on the fact that it remains both a classi- cal text on the tea ceremony and an indispensable reference for researchers on art, culture and thought of East Asia.

The influence of this book as an intercultural product can be perceived as well in many differ- ent sorts of products, such as Orientalist products for Japanese markets: the recent design of the Shiseido package of its by-product, the perfume Zen, inspired in chashitsu Finally, in , an International Symposium on Okakura Tenshin was held at the Tokyo Wa- tarim Bijutsukan to commemorate the centenary of the publication of The Book of Tea.

Conclusions We have checked by the analysis of the two STs that both authors have the same skopos, that is to reinterpret and disseminate the Japanese cultural identity traits to the rest of the world so that Japan would be accepted and valued abroad as an Asian leading power. We have also inves- tigated the influence of the paratextual elements,the context and the pretexts both in the STs and in the translations analysed here.

Nitobe , being a diplo- mat, tries to find points of encounter between East and West, whereas Okakura, being an artist, is more passionate and occasionally paradoxical. On one hand he tries to bring Japanese values closer to Western values, but on the other hand, he claims the superiority of these values. Regarding the reception of these works, two of them have been very popular and influential books until nowadays in the West since their publication.

Finally, as we have already stated, the two STs are case study representatives of the Nihonjin- ron discourse. Boston, Tuttle Publishing. NITOBE, Inazo Le Bushido. NITOBE, Inazo NITOBE, Inazo El Bushido.

The Ideals of the East, with special Reference to the Art of Japan, Lon- don, John Murray, ed. BASSNETT, Susan. META, 54, 2, BEEBY, A. and RODRIGUEZ, M. Revista de Cultura Fortaleza, Sao Paulo DIEZ DEL CORRAL, L. HERMANS, Theo The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation, Lon- don and Sydney, Croom Helm. HERMANS, Theo Translation in System: Descriptive and System-Oriented Approaches Explained, Manchester, St. Jerome Publishing. Author of the Book of Tea, Tokyo, The Hokuseido Press.

Journal of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, number 2, pp. Translating Cultures: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators, Manchester, St. Ten- shin Okakura International Symposium. Tokyo, Santoku-an,Watarium Bijutsukan, Shogakukan 58 M.

NORD, Christiane Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Ex- plained, Manchester, St. Madrid, Espasa-Calpe, col. PhD Thesis , Universidad de Granada. Granada, Universidad de Granada. SAID, Edward, Orientalism. London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Translation and Discountinuity, University of Cornell. In Quaderns,. Beeby, D. Ensinger and M. Presas, ed. Critical Issues in Discourse Analysis, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing. I will talk about a relatively new phenomenon called pre-translation, observed first of all by scholars of Arabic literatures.

Also, Japanese sentences may be formulated in such a way as to suggest their easy transposition into a Western language, most likely Eng- lish. This technique can be observed with Murakami Haruki but also with other authors such as Mishima Yukio. Other strategies of making Japanese Literature fit for World Literature is heavy editing on the part of translators and publishers.

Here, I will try to add new angles to this discussion. Finally, I will sketch some consequences for authors, translators, publishers, critics, and readers. Japanese writers throughout most of Japanese history, in- cluding the twentieth century, may not have harbored aspirations of being read beyond the bor- ders of their home country, even though the majority of them had been avid readers of foreign literature, Chinese or European.

Therefore, I have decided to begin my tale with an explanation. Thomas Rimer. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press , pp. This gesture serves at least two purposes, for the self-conscious reference effectively paints a global horizon for his story with its deliberately traditional setting.

Japanese Authors Pre-Translating their Works How do other Japanese authors pre-translate their texts? Take his novel Afterdark, which is written in a partly unidiomatic Japanese with an overabundance of sentence subjects and with clearly un-Japanese expressions, figures of speech and gestures which ring more English than Japanese.

One might attribute these characteristics of style to his work as a translator of Anglophone literature or to a conscious deci- sion to give his literature in Japanese a foreign and quasi-cosmopolitan ring. I wonder how Japanese readers react to the de- tailed and circumstantial description of how to access and make use of a Love Hotel, something about which no Japanese youngster would need any educational advertising. Their cultural knowledge is, of course, much more dif- ficult to assess.

This assumption goes hand in hand with the observation that quite a few Japanese writers seem to be biased in their valuation of translations into English. Nobody, of course, can ignore the hegemony of English in international communication, but literary markets are quite something else, yet this is a topic which necessitates more explanation than can be given here. This is, of course, no speciality of literature written in Arabic or in Japanese.

Japanese-born British writer Kazuo Ishiguro admits in an interview in to carefully try to avoid local color. He suspects himself to be the first in his generation to work from the very beginning with the aspect of translatability in mind, in a linguistic as well as in a cultural sense.

Thus, he confesses to abstaining from using English wordplay or puns. He goes so far as to even scrutinize his subject matter ac- cording to its global compatibility, suggesting that there are topics which may be important in an English context but not necessarily in other parts of the world. In the case of Ishiguro at least, it seems that his strategy, embraced from his very start as a professional author, of writing for an international market worked out even, and the fact that he writes in English will certainly have added to his success.

But can his example serve as a model for other writers, particularly those of other languages and cultures? Are we counting sales figures, or the number of translations into other languages, or literary prizes for his works, or what? Readers of contemporary Japanese works, once they are sensitivized to the phenomenon, will have no difficulties in identifying instances of pre-translation with other authors.

Mishima Yukio could perhaps be counted as an early sample. The forms of editing are manifold indeed, and it would take another paper to deal with them or even to list all of them. Whereas many authors will not be able to check what has happened to their work in the tar- get language, and others may not even be interested in the results of its transformation as long as the book looks nice and royalties are flowing, some are fairly explicit about how they want to be translated.

Was it that he distrusted German translators more than English ones? And was his distrust so strong that he rather opted for a multiple trans- lation? We will never know. html 7 8 Cf. shtml Retrieved on Dec. See, e. by Irmela Hijiya-Kirschnereit. Munich: Iudicium Publ. While it is, of course, perfectly legitimate for an author to decide on if, when and how his works are translated, it may come as a surprise that this Japanese author pro-actively supports the hegemony of American literary tastes.

I have started out with the observation that some Japanese writers may not even be interested in having their works cross linguistic and cultural borders. And yet, they have been part of a global literary space for many generations now. Their choice of topic and style is also shaped by a globalized consciousness, whether they are aware of it or not. Irmela Hijiya-Kirschnereit. This can be observed with many a Japanese literary work already.

According to the most recent bibliography of translations of modern Japanese literature into German, there have been app.

Does the author have to keep an international readership in mind while writ- ing? Does she have to pre-translate? Does he perhaps orientalize his work, or, by contrast, try to strip his work of local color? When Korean star author Kim Young Ha was asked in an interview about the reaction of European readers to his novels — he has not yet been translated into Japanese, as far as I know -, he responded that readers seemed to have missed an Asian, an ethnic Korean touch.

But, he said, as his works are situated in a historical moment when Western consumer culture boomed in his country, this may have been a natural consequence. Asked about globalization in Korean litera- ture, however, he admitted that this cannot and should not be aimed for.

Tasks for the Target Language As an example of what the target language culture can do in this context, let me introduce to you a bibliography of reviews of Japanese literature in German translation. It systematically lists, on close to pages, with 4 indexes, all reviews, in full text, that were published in German lan- guage newspapers with national circulation in former West and East Germany as well as Swit- zerland and Austria from through This bibliography serves as a tool for research into how Japanese literature has been received and what part it plays on the wider continental book 14 Cf.

Paris: Seuill ; The World Republic of Letters. Cambridge, London: Harvard UP , p. Eine Bibliographie der Jahre Munich: Iudicium Publishers note Once more, here is what we have been working on for the past decade or so in German in order to enhance the quality of translation from the Japanese: It is a Comprehensive Japanese-German Dictionary Wadoku daijiten , the largest bilingual dictionary for Japanese that ever existed, with more than The first of altogether three vols.

What is needed is a platform to discuss more seriously what happens with and because of Japanese literature in an international context. Literatur als Wunschmaschine. Retrieved December 30, Within this framework this paper will highlight the process of translating Christian concepts in early Meiji Japan. Monotheism, believing in one supreme God, was one of the greatest stumbling blocks when American missionaries in the late 19th century struggled with the translation of the Bible into Japanese.

In a country, where religion was characterized by pragmatism, syncretism and a myri- ad of gods believing in an all-mighty God was not obvious. Japan had, with some exceptions, been secluded from the outside world for over two hundred years and was opened, assisted by Ameri- can gunboats, in Although efforts at translating the Bible into Japanese had started outside Japan eg.

The Gospels of Mark, Matthew and John were translated by Brown and Hepburn in and a complete Japanese Bible translation was published in The aim of this paper is to clarify the nature and significance of the discrepancies between the American original and the Japanese translation. Furthermore, the two versions of the hitherto largely neglected schoolbook point at the wavering education poli- cies moving from Shinto ideology to a more Confucian or secular standpoint.

From a viewpoint of translation strategies, the text has been domesticated to suit the Japanese traditional ethics but a high dose of foreignization is preserved, involuntarily perhaps, in the direct rendering of a foreign culture. The end of the 19th century witnessed an intensive period of translation.

Suddenly awakening to the threat posed by Western powers, Japan was eager to obtain knowledge of the West. Trans- lations of what were believed to be key Western texts helped foster knowledge.

At first, Japanese scholars made use of Chinese equivalents appearing in translations of Western books on medicine, astronomy, geography, history, mathematics, and so on. Later, translators began inventing their own appropriate Japanese words. Douglas Howland suggests that the tradi- tion of Chinese learning and a familiarity with the Chinese written but not spoken language among intellectuals accounts for this preference.

Fukuzawa, therefore, distanced himself from the Sino- Japanese style and was one of the few who strove to make his language as colloquial as feasible, hoping to capture as wide an audience as possible. Studying the development of translation at this critical juncture in Japanese history, therefore, helps us to appreciate specific nuances in the transition from the Tokugawa period to Meiji. We will see that where the dissemination of knowledge was concerned, translation dislodged the erstwhile feudal hierarchy, and provided ac- cess to new ideas irrespective of class.

Borrowings were taken from Dutch learning, and translations were done via Chinese or old loan- words from Chinese were given new meanings, e. the meaning of bungaku, implying knowledge 1 eg. Translation and Power. Amherst, MA: University of Massa- chusetts Press. Translating the West: Language and Political Reason in Nineteenth Century Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Tokyo: Kodansha, Vande Walle co-editor Kazuhiko Kasaya. Kyoto: Leuven University Press, , As kango words of Chinese origin were to a large extent used for constructing equivalents in Japanese, many translators thought it appropri- ate to use the Sino-Japanese style kanbun-yomikudashi rather than the spoken language, i.

using a literary style bungo with a predominance of Chinese characters rather than the indigenous kana syllabary. Even if it was far from the spoken language, it was a style with which the intellec- tual elite the presumed readership at the time was acquainted. The Sino-Japanese style made use of metaphors and expressions from classical Chinese. Omissions and additions were com- mon. One feature of translation which has been largely overlooked, is the process by which transla- tion introduces new concepts and their corresponding terminology.

Scott Adaptations of Western Literature in Meiji Japan. New York: Palgrave, 4. Tuttle Company, , Originally published New York F. Revell , Charismatic leaders warned that the foundations of society were threatened by non-religious behavior and immorality. Many converts were eager to demonstrate their faith by busying themselves in doing away with social evils. A widespread interest for missionary efforts was also a result of this. Unless converted into Christians, it was believed that peoples of other religions would be tortured in hell.

The spirit of the missionary activities was also ex- pressed in American expansionism westward and the forming of a national consciousness. The mission in Japan was set up mainly as a result of this missionary spirit combined with expan- sionist interests. One assumed that the mounting interest for Western culture would automatically lead to the Japanese accept- ing Christianity. Robert Morrison, the translator of the Bible into Chinese, had a similar background; apart from the Bible he also translated Chinese classics and compiled a grammar.

These missionaries believed that Christian norms were the final phase of development. Therefore their main concern was education. As the ban on Christianity would not be lifted until , they were, of course, also restricted from openly preaching, yet Western knowledge and institutions were seen as prerequisites for the adoption of Christianity.

It also happened that the devotion to education was the main focus of Meiji leaders in their efforts to build a modern nation based on Western knowledge. Brill, , The converts were convinced that Chris- tianity was the basis of Western progress and crucial for the modernization of Japan.

The Emperor did not meet the requirements, as he did not distribute fiefs as the for- mer domain lords had done. God was put in the place of the feudal lord. Devoted to their lord and their social mission, they felt that their status as samurai had been restored. Verbeck18, recommended that the Willson Reader be translated for use as a primary school reader. Portuguese or Latin words e. All efforts to translate the Bible appear to have disappeared, as Protestant missionaries in the 19th century seemed unaware of the work that had been done by the Portuguese Jesuits in later attempts to 16 Ibid.

Some of the books were subsequently ordered from the United States and translated to Japanese. Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser Stanford: Stanford University Press, , However, during their long period of seclusion from the rest of the world, educated Japanese seem to have been acquainted with Christian terminol- ogy through Chinese translations. Chinese translations of religious and scientific Western works had existed since the 17th century.

Furthermore, many of the missionaries who were later to come to Japan had introduced Western learning in China, where Protestant missionaries were present as early as the beginning of the 19th century. The central figures in the first full translation of the New Testament, Hepburn and Brown, were clear- ly influenced by the Chinese translation carried out by Bridgman and Culbertson.

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